Housing and homelessness Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Housing and homelessness - Coursework Example In the present day context, homelessness along with housing need is considered to be a social issue, which hampers the economic growth and stability of a country at large. The members of social care services provide affordable housing to people to secure their life and reduce health issues that lead towards the development of a healthy society (Department of Housing and Public Works, 2014). In relation to the above context, the essay intends to determine whether addressing and alleviating housing need is a part of social care policy and practice with focus on evaluating evidences and providing valid justifications. With the advent of globalisation, the lifestyle of people and economies of scale have changed by a considerable extent. The issue of homelessness and housing need is identified to s increase considerably that have been affecting the lives of the individuals and rising social issues. It will be vital to mention that in this present day context, the issue concerning homelessness must have ‘no place in the society’. Justifiably, homelessness is duly considered to be one of the social issues, which affects human civilisation and economy at large. It is observed in several countries that people live in the streets as they have no place for taking shelter. With reference to the census of 2011 in Queensland, UK, it was witnessed that about 19858 people lived in the streets as they were homeless (Department of Housing and Public Works, 2014). The issue concerning homelessness resembles the fact that the people are unable to afford a house for themselves, which is mainly because of increasing unemployment. This in turn elevates the poverty level, which is recognised as a social issue and thus utmost attention is provided to eradicate the same. Therefore, in this context, it can be inferred that assisting people in terms of offering them with street based help or

Despite the best efforts of academics, little is known about the way Essay

Despite the best efforts of academics, little is known about the way policy is formulated. Discuss - Essay Example It (the policy) identifies and describes the approved and established courses for the adoption by the government and the organizations. Policy usually embraces all general goals, the acceptable procedures and the main actions that lead to the achievement of the goals. It’s (the policies) work is to provide a center for the formulation of policies/strategies, major plans, legislation and any other framework documents. They (policies) generally reflect on long term objectives and they are more subjected to revisions and modifications that are mainly based on the changed vision and goals (Chowdhury, 2003). The national document is a very large mandate which is normally enunciated by the major authority that governs the state with an intention of formulating certain acts and rules that are mostly applied towards the end of attaining the desired objectives. In order to achieve a good policy formulation there has to be a number of desirable steps that have to be followed generally for the purpose of achieving a good policy. Some of these steps include; agreements on how to set priorities, having a form of participatory process, national determination of having a clear goal, implementation arrangements that has clear cut task distribution and better monitoring of activities for major improvements of services and strategic information. When all these steps are followed a good policy gets to be formulated, these steps act as guidance (or even direction) in the policy formulation (Chowdhury, 2003). For the to be able to address a certain public predicament some polices have to be formulated; before the formulation of the policies some steps have to taken and they include; the proper identification of the problem, formulation of a policy adjustment, implementation of the adjusted policy and evaluation of how the adjusted policy is working so as

Public Health Expenditure And Health

Public Health Expenditure And Health Using a utility maximization approach as developed by Grossman, the results revealed that health expenditure does not affect health outcomes in Kenya. The factors that affect health outcomes include: distance to nearest health facility (5km or more) and other household income. This implies that increasing public health expenditure does not lead to reduced maternal mortality rates. Since the other determinants (access to medical facility and other household income) significantly affect the health outcomes, the government needs to put measures in place to ensure that women can easily access health facilities and sensitize them to ensure that they deliver in health facilities and attend antenatal care. This study did not include some important variables that affect maternal mortality rates like the impact of cultural practices such as female genital mutilation (FGM), preference of certain types of health care providers (including traditional and herbal medicine) and earlier marriages. Therefore we suggest that in future, studies in this field should give attention to these variables. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background information Health is the extent to which an individual or group is able to cope with the interpersonal, social, biological, and physical environments (World Bank, 2004). Health is therefore a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. It is a positive concept embracing social and personal resources as well as physical and psychological capacities. Health financing is a key input in the provision of quality healthcare. Governments have always had a prominent role in overcoming public health risks and this is a major area of concern in less developed countries like Kenya (Scott, 2001). The provision of good health satisfies one of the basic human needs and contributes significantly to maintaining and enhancing the productivity of the people (Owino, 1997). Public expenditure on health services therefore is a key investment in human capital and plays a catalytic role in the growth of the economy by enabling people to achieve their full potential and lead productive lives. In recognition of the importance of human health, one of the Kenya governments major goals since independence has been to achieve adequate and good-quality health care for all citizens (GOK, 1965). To address health outcomes in developing countries such as Kenya, UNICEF advocates for increased public expenditure on health (UNICEF, 2006). Therefore, many countries in developing countries have increased their health expenditure over time. For example, to achieve better health outcomes, Kenya has increased its health expenditure from Kshs. 11.9 billion in 2000 to Kshs. 20 billion in 2004 representing a 30% increase as shown in Figure 1.1 (GOK, 2007). But more resources alone may not necessarily lead to better health outcomes because health care expenditure is only one of the many factors that contribute to health outcomes, considering the fact that these resources may be channeled to various projects that may not directly influence health outcomes. The link between government health expenditures and health outcomes may therefore not necessarily be present. First, an increase in public health expenditures may result in a decrease in private health expenditures; a household may dive rt its funds towards other uses once the government increases its provision of basic health care. Second, the incremental government expenditures may be employed on the intensive rather than the extensive margin. An example of intensive expenditures would be if expensive and low productivity inputs are bought with marginal funds in which case the impact of these expenditures on health outcomes may be small. Third, even if extra funds are applied extensively to health care (e.g. more staff at hospitals, adequate stocking of medications), but complementary services, both inside and outside the health sector, are not there (e.g. lack of roads or transportation to hospitals and clinics, subsidized prices for medication, etc.) the impact of extra government health expenditures may be little or none (Wagstaff, 2002a). In addition to health expenditure, Kenya also joined hands with other one hundred and eighty eight countries in a global effort to improve health outcome and reaffirmed its commitment to the united Nations Millennium Development goals (MDGs). Three of these millennium development goals are directly related to health. These are to (i) reduce child mortality, (ii) Improve maternal health and (iii) combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. Despite these global and local interventions in health, performance of Kenyas health sector in terms of maternal mortality has remained as high as four hundred and eighty eight maternal deaths per 100,000 live births in 2008/9, an increase from four hundred and fourteen per 100,000 live births in 2003, five hundred and ninety per 100,000 in 1998 (KDHS, 2008-09). Figure 1.2. Most maternal deaths are due to causes directly related to pregnancy and childbirth, unsafe abortion and obstetric complications such as severe bleeding, infection, hypertensive disorders, and obstructed labor (KDHS, 2008-09). Improving maternal health being one of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) adopted at the 2000 Millennium Summit, and with only three years left until the 2015 deadline to achieve the MDGs, closer examination of maternal mortality levels is needed to inform planning of reproductive health programmes and to guide advocacy efforts and research at the national level. These estimates a re also needed at the international level, to inform decision-making concerning funding support for the achievement of this goal. Therefore this study focuses on the relationship between health expenditure and health outcomes in Kenya more particularly, how public health expenditure impacts on maternal mortality rates and other determinants of health outcomes. Figure 1.1 Public Health expenditure trends in Kenya Source: Kenya Demographic Health Survey 2008/09 Figure 1.2 Trends in maternal mortality: 1990-2008 Source: Kenya Demographic Health Survey 2008/09 1.1.2 Public Health expenditure in Kenya Adequate resources are critical to sustainable provision of health services. The government remains the major financier of health care, meeting nearly half of the national health recurrent expenditure. The Kenya policy framework of 1994 identified several methods of health services financing, including taxation, user fees, donor funds, and health insurance. These methods have evolved into important mechanisms for funding health services in the country. The GOK funds the health sector through budgetary allocations to the MOH. However, tax revenues are unreliable sources of health finance, because of macroeconomic conditions such as poor growth, national debt, and inflation, which often affect health allocations. The government therefore works closely with development partners to raise money for the health sector. Donor contributions to the health sector have been on the increase, rising from eight percent of the health budget in 1994-95 to sixteen percent in the fiscal 2001/2002. In some years, donor contributions accounted for over ninety percent of the development budget of the MOH (Ministry of Health, 2006). According to the 2001-2002 national health accounts (NHA), as cited by Wamai (2009) Kenya spends 5.1% of its GDP on health. He cited that the health budget had grown significantly from Ksh15.2 billion in Fiscal 2001/02 to Ksh34.4 billion in Fiscal 2008/09. He added that the proportion of overall government expenditure that the government spent on health declined over the same period from 9% to 7.9% in Fiscal 2006/07. In 1992 a cost-sharing system was introduced to leverage more resources for health services (Collins et al, 1996). Revenue from the cost-sharing system increased exponentially from Ksh60 million in Fiscal 1992/93 to over Ksh1, 468 million in Fiscal 2005/06. However, the revenues overall share of total health expenditure for Fiscal 2005/06 was just 6.4% of the MOHs total spending (MOH, 2007). Figure 1.3: Overview of Kenyas health budget, FY2002 2008 ( US$ million) Source: Health Policy Initiative analysis of Ministry of medical services, 2008 Figure 1.4: Absolute value of Total Health Expenditure (THE) by financing source 2001-2010 Source: Kenya National Health Accounts 2009/10 Reviews of public expenditures and budgets in Kenya show that total health spending constitutes about eight percent of the total government expenditure and that recurrent expenditures have been consistently higher than the development expenditures, both in absolute terms, and as a percentage of the GDP. Government financing of health expenditure is about sixty percent of what is required to provide minimum health services, implying that healthcare delivery in Kenya is under-funded (KHDR, 1999). This is accentuated by inefficiency of the system, including lack of cost-effectiveness in service delivery. However, preliminary information from Kenyas national health accounts shows that the financial contributions of households (out of pocket expenses) exceed those of the government. (Collins et al. 1996) The per capita expenditure therefore falls short of the Government of Kenyas commitment to spend fifteen percent of its total budget on health, as agreed in the Abuja Declaration. The under-financing of the health sector has thus reduced its ability to ensure an adequate level of service provision to the population (Collins et al. 1996). The national health concern therefore is the extent to which additional health expenditure on specific care programmes like maternal health will promote /increase benefits of the patients through improved outcomes in health (decline in maternal mortality rates). 1.1.3 Maternal healthcare in Kenya Improving maternal health is one of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) adopted at the 2000 Millennium Summit. The two targets for assessing progress in improving maternal health are reducing the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) by three quarters between 1990 and 2015, and achieving universal access to reproductive health by 2015. With only three years left until the 2015 deadline to achieve the MDGs, closer examination of maternal mortality levels is needed to inform planning of reproductive health programmes and to guide advocacy efforts and research at the national level. These estimates are also needed at the international level, to inform decision-making concerning funding support for the achievement of this goal. Good maternal health is crucial for the welfare of the whole household, especially children who are dependent on their mothers to provide food and care. Prevention of the death of a mother is the single most important intervention for the health of a child. Women are intensely vulnerable to the effects of costs incurred during childbirth. User fees can be especially high for emergency or technological procedures such as caesarean section, sometimes reaching catastrophic amounts, which push families into poverty (Graham and Newell, 1999). Many women often leave the hospital before they are well enough for discharge because they cannot pay for the care they have received. User charges add to the costs of transport and companion time, which can be substantial for those living far from facilities. The time spent looking for cash can also delay access to emergency life-saving care in facilities (Kunst and Houweling, 2001). In sub-Saharan Africa, one in sixteen women die in pregnancy or childbirth (WHO, 2001). An estimated ten to twenty million women develop physical or mental disabilities every year as a result of complications or poor management (Ashford, 2006). The long-term consequences are not only physical, but are also psychological, social, and economic. Despite the commitment expressed with the Millennium initiative, maternal health has not been given financial priority internationally. Safe motherhood programmes compete for funding with other priorities such as tuberculosis, malaria and HIV/AIDS. 1.2 Statement of the problem In Kenya, as in most Sub-Saharan African countries, health care expenditure has steadily increased over time, therefore making its containment a major issue for successive governments. The existence of a large public deficit and the need to reduce it drastically to comply with the requirements of the AU has added importance to controlling health care expenditure. Financing health care has remained a challenge to the Government of Kenya for a long time. There seems to be very low investment in health by the government, and inappropriate allocation of resources within the government health budget. In Kenya, health is a basic human right and therefore the health situation in Kenya remains a significant concern for the policy makers. The cost of health care, especially maternal health is a heavy burden on households. While health financing has undergone numerous reforms, more changes are needed to ease the burden of maternal health care costs on households in a bid to increase utilization and subsequently improve the health status of the population. In Kenya, like in most developing countries, maternal health care program encompass a medical condition that is regularly associated with death. The maternal mortality rates are very high. The major concern in this study is therefore the change in patient improvement due to additional expenditure on maternal health care (reduced maternal mortality rates). It analyzes whether increasing health care expenditure towards maternal health care program will reduce the maternal mortality rates. 1.3 Objectives of the study The broad objective of this study is to analyze the relationship between health care expenditure and maternal health outcomes in Kenya. The specific objectives of this study are: To identify the determinants of maternal health in Kenya. To investigate the relationship between government expenditure on maternal health care and maternal health outcomes To make policy recommendations based on study findings 1.4 Significance of the study A key factor that has contributed to the declining health outcomes has been the decline in annual real per capita government budget to the health sector. As noted earlier, the actual expenditures fall below budgetary allocations. With respect to this, policy makers are highly interested in the relationship between expenditure on public health and the resultant health outcomes/benefits. The issue is whether extra spending on maternal health leads to better maternal health outcomes. From a policy perspective, this study can help set priorities on resource allocations across specific program of care. For instance it can help the government to know whether additional expenditure on maternal health care will reduce maternal mortality rates in the country. The government is able to set its priorities right whether to invest more on these specific care programme or to reduce its expenditure given the severe budgetary constraints. It also gives policy makers some guidance on appropriate cost containment measures that will help improve health system performance in Kenya. It is also very useful at the international level, to inform decision-making concerning funding support for the achievement of the fifth millennium development goal. This study also adds to the existing literature on the relationship between health care expenditure and health outcomes, determinants of health outcomes and how health outcomes can be improved. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Healthcare is an intermediate good that has no intrinsic value in itself but has value in its contribution (along with other inputs such as environmental and social factors) towards production of health itself. Health, or in general, health status, refers to measures of the physical and emotional well-being of an individual or a defined population. The quantity of healthcare product produced by a healthcare firm is referred to as its output. The ultimate output of the health sector is health. Healthcare therefore can be viewed as any other good or service in which each individual maximizes utility subject to a budget constraint. The basic economic theory of production provides a basis on the linkage of health expenditure and health outcomes. The theory suggests that there are many ways inputs can be used in various proportions to produce outputs (Wolfe, 2002). Inputs refer to the resources needed to carry out a process or provide a service. Inputs required in healthcare are usually financial, physical structures such as buildings, supplies and equipment, personnel, and clients while output refers to the direct result of the interaction of inputs and processes in the system; the types and quantities of goods and services produced by an activity, project or program. The use of inputs in healthcare leads to outcomes. (Cremieux et al. 1999). Health production theory highlights the manner in which health care as an input is related to health as an output. In this theory, health is the output measured in terms of improved health status such as reduced mortality, morbidity or achieving health related millennium development goals while inputs consist of the number of trained health professionals, the number of school years completed, residential place, the proportion of GDP spent on health and the government health expenditure in the health sector (Desai, 1998). Health production theory utilizes the health production function which is the change in health status affected as an approximate matter by changes in the consumption of various health services effective in improving health. The production function summarizes the relationship between inputs and outputs with health status being the dependent variable (function of healthcare) dependent on populations social and environmental factors, policy variables and country specific effects inclusive of biological endowment, and lifestyle. Many studies on this subject have adopted Grossmans (1972) model of health production which views each individual as both a producer and a consumer of health. It regards health as a commodity which the individual will wish to consume and maximize, subject to his/her budget constraints, in conjunction with a number of endogenous and exogenous variables which have an impact on individuals health. Within this model, income and educational level play an important role as explanatory variables. In Grossmans model, he regards health care as both a consumption good that provides direct satisfaction and utility, and as an investment good, it provides satisfaction to individuals indirectly through reduction in sick days, increased wages and increased productivity. In this case, health can be viewed as a stock which degrades over time if there are no investments in the individual health, and that health is taken as a sort of capital. Investing in health may seem costly as individuals must trade off resources and time that may be devoted to health, unlike other goals. These factors are also used in determining the optimal level of health that is needed by an individual. The model therefore makes predictions on the likely effects of health care price changes and other goods, outcomes in labor market such as technological changes, wages and employment. In the Grossman model, at the optimal level, health investment occurs where the marginal cost of health capital is equal to the marginal benefit. Over time, health is likely to depreciate at a certain rate which may be denoted by ÃŽÂ ´. The consumer faces an interest rate which may also be denoted by r. By adding these variables, the health capital marginal cost can be calculated as under: ÃŽÂ ´ In this case the health capital marginal benefit is the rate of return from this capital in both non market and market sectors. In this model, the health stock at optimal level can be caused by factors such as education, wages and age. The theory further advocates that investing in health should be combined with other factors which are crucial in order to produce new health, which in the long run may offset the process of deterioration in the stock of health. Medical scientists could argue that only effective medical care should be universally available (OHE, 1979). The government therefore may resort to explicit rationing which is not only to set limits on total expenditure for care, but also to develop mechanisms to arrive at more rational decisions as to relative investments in different disease specific programmes, and the establishment of certain minimal uniform standards. This rationing does not guarantee mothers to equal access to appropriate maternal/medical care. Treatment is still within the postulate that the doctor will do his best with the resources available to him but there is no such constraint on those resources as government decides (OHE, 1979). This study looks at maternal health as the output of an aggregate production which utilizes variables such as public health expenditure, access to government medical services and household incomes as the inputs. The assumption is that for reasons associated with diminishing returns and the adverse effects of certain variables after an initial positive outcome, the relationship is expected to be nonlinear (Nixon and Ulman, 2006). 2.2 EMPIRICAL LITERATURE Health status are commonly measured using four major indicators, maternal mortality, mortality rate in infants, mortality rate for under five and life expectancy at birth (Akinkugbe et al. 2009); (Gupta et al. 1999); (Wang,2002); (Imam et al. 2003). Other measures of health outcomes/status used include preference of cancer or circulatory diseases, disability adjusted life years, quality adjusted life years, fertility indicators and achievement of other health related millennium development goals. Similarly, government health expenditure, GDP per capita, female literacy, number of physicians, immunization coverage, urbanization and calorie intake among others are some of the most used explanatory variables (Wolfe, 1986); (Wang, 2002); (Or, 2000b); (Caldwell, 1990) and (Filmer et al. 1999). Most studies have used cross-sectional analysis (Bokhari et al.2007); (Imam et al. 2003); (Anyanwu et al. 2008); (Gani et al. 2009); (Wang, 2002); (Nixon and Ulman, 2006) and (Martin et al. 2009). Some have used panel data (Gupta et al. 1999) and (Or, 2000b), while Akinkugbe et al. (2009) used time series analysis to estimate the relationship between the public health expenditure and health outcomes. To solve the problem of autocorrelation in cross sectional analysis, heteroskedasticity test was done, corrected standard errors for panel data analysis while augmented Dickey Fuller tests were used to test for stationarity in all studies using time series data. All studies reviewed used health expenditure as one of the explanatory variables except Wang, (2002) who looked at it in a different perspective. According to him, demand for electricity, access to piped water and sanitation and female education increases health expenditure but it does not increase public health expenditure in improving health outcomes. Most studies indicated that public spending contributes significantly to health status improvements (Filmer et al. 1999); (Abel Smith, 1963); (Kiymaz et al. 2006); (Ester et al. 2011); (Gakunju, 2003); (Bokhari et al.2006); (Anyanwu et al. 2005); (Cremieux et al. 1999); (Nixon and Ulman, 2006) and (Blendon et al. 2006). For example, Filmer et al. (1999) used data from the early 1990s and estimated multivariate regression model of child mortality on per capita income, government health expenditure and other controls. They found that there was significant correlation between child mortality and income per capita. Some studies however indicated that public health expenditure alone as a determinant of health is inadequate (Ogbu and Gallagher, 1992); (Castrol-leal et al. 1999); (Gupta et al. 2003); (Anderson and Frogner, 2005); (Hitris and Posnet, 1992); (Caldwell, 1986); (Dor et al. 2007) and (Cochrane et al. 1978). In estimations, different methods were used by different authors. Generally two main methods were used: generalized least squares and the ordinary least squares. However, other methods have also been used. For example, Bokhari et al. (2006) and Gupta et al. (1999) used two stage least squares because of the instrumental variables used to address the problem of reverse causality and measurement errors in the variables. Anyanwu et al. (2005) used Robust Ordinary Least Squares as the baseline specification and robust two stage least squares to control for endogeneity and reverse causality. Bhalotra (2007) used the linear probability model. Particularly, Flippi et al (2006) took a broader perspective on maternal health and drew attention to the economic and social vulnerability of pregnant women. They called for action to reduce maternal mortality rates by channeling more resources towards maternal healthcare, improving on human resources and information. They used maternal mortality ratio (by cause) as the major indicator and recommended that research is needed on how to finance health services and ensure equitable access to generate more evidence. While examining the association of the socio-demographic characteristics of women and the unobserved hospital factors in Kenya, Magadi et al. (2001) used multilevel logistic regression. The results showed that the probability of maternal mortality depends on both observed factors that are associated with a particular woman and unobserved factors peculiar to the admitting hospital. The individual characteristics observed to have a significant association with maternal mortality include maternal age, antenatal clinic attendance and educational attainment. The hospital variation was observed to be stronger for women with least favorable socio-demographic characteristics. For example, the risk of maternal death at high-risk hospitals for women aged thirty five years and above, who had low levels of education, and did not attend antenatal care is about two hundred and eighty deaths per a thousand admissions. The risk for similar women at low-risk hospitals is about four deaths per a thous and admissions. In a study carried out on health care services and sources of revenue in six countries from Western Europe and North America, Abel Smith (1963) found that health care expenditure was associated with reduced life expectancy and increased mortality rates. In a similar study carried out in the year 1967 involving twenty nine countries he found that the level of national income was associated with improved health status and that the demand for healthcare increased in countries with declining mortality. Abel Smiths studies laid down foundation for the development of methodologies for tracking health expenditures in both private and public sectors. While investigating the factors that are associated with infant mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa, Ester et al. (2011) carried out an ecological multi-group study using a bi-variate and multi-variate analysis with infant mortality rate as the dependent variable. They used a linear regression model between infant mortality rate and the correlated indicators (social security expenditure and government expenditure per-capita on health). This study revealed, in the multi-variate analysis, three factors associated with the IMR: a higher social security expenditure on health as a percentage of the general government expenditure on health, a higher per-capita government expenditure on health and a higher number of children under five years of age with diarrhea receiving oral dehydration therapy indicated a lower IMR. During the examination of the effectiveness of public social spending on education and health care in several African countries, Castro-Leal et al. (1999) reviewed the benefit incidence of government spending in Cote divoire, Guinea, Kenya, Madagascar, South Africa and Tanzania. Their study found that public expenditures on health were not sufficient especially on the poor to reduce mortality rates. On the other hand, Gupta et al. (2003) used cross-country data for over seventy developing countries to assess the relationship between public spending on health care and the health status of the poor. Their findings confirmed that the poor have significantly worse health status than the rich. The results however suggested that increased public spending alone will not be sufficient to significantly improve health status. Another study carried out on the health effects of per capita income and public expenditure on social services in Kenya, proved that per capita income had been very influential in determining health status. The study found that expenditures on education and health care improved health status at a great margin. It further established that per capita income was significantly linked to the levels of mortalities, and that some of the negative trends in health status could have been attributed to unfavorable growth and insufficient social spending on health (Manyala, 2000). In his findings income elasticities were all statistically significant, current income had the expected effect on life expectancy but not on infant mortality. He further found that if mothers are malnourished and are in poor state of health, their infant will inherit part of this poor health, and therefore will be at greater risk of mortality relative to infants of healthy mother. A comparative study by Wagstaff (2002a) that focused on forty two developing countries used child mortality due to malnutrition and diarrhea as the health outcomes/indicators. Wagstaff (2002b) treated government health expenditure as an exogenous variable and found that it did have a statistically significant (negative) coefficient. The study used a simple stylized theoretical model rationalizing the health-income relationship and found that public spending on health care had a larger impact on child mortality among the poor than among the non-poor population. In his study on health and schooling investments in Africa, Schultz (1999) found that health status rose with increased public spending on health services. He also argued that the health status will tend to decline with a rise in relative prices of health inputs such as salaries of medical personnel, cost of drugs and other medical supplies, relative to prices of nutrients that help fight infections and disease. He also found that levels of education were correlated with lower mortality rates. The relationship between mothers education and mortality rate was stronger than the fathers. He recommended that an additional year of schooling to the mother especially in low-income countries was associated with a five to ten percent reduction in mortality rates. On his analysis of the factors determining health status in Kenya, Gakunju (2003) found that government expenditure on public health was noteworthy in shaping individual health status. He also found that government health expenditure influences health status with over a long time. This actually implies that the government investment and spending in the health sector have had a major effect on the health of the people. He also acknowledged a number of factors as being important in resolving the health problem Kenya such as: Per capita income, individual access to doctors, HIV/AIDs prevalence, literacy level for women, Child immunization coverage and spending/investment by the government in the health sector. His study majorly used the central government e

The Life of the Governess Rebecca Sharp :: Victorian Era

The Life of the Governess Vanity Fair Sets the Stage â€Å"If Miss Rebecca Sharp had determined in her heart upon making the conquest of this big beau, I don't think, ladies, we have any right to blame her†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Thackery 27). The narrator of Vanity Fair encourages readers not to blame Rebecca Sharp for being determined to win Joseph Sedley's attentions and proposal in only ten days! After all, the narrator reminds us that she was motherless, and thus had no one to help her secure a husband. Yet, members of Vanity Fair rebuke Miss Sharp for her assertive efforts. Perhaps, though, one should sympathize and applaud Miss Sharp's labors because her destination after ten days was the life of a governess. A Governess-A Definition The position of a governess required that one act as a companion for her charges and teach them the accomplishments that would enable them to compete effectively in society†¦ The required accomplishments were still one or two languages, preferably French and Italian, music, dancing, drawing and needlework†¦ The eventual aim was the best possible marriage. --Alice Renton, 48 The governess was even often the heroine for writers focusing on domestic, educational and social issues (â€Å"The Victorian Governess†). Yet, author and former governess Charlotte Brontà « wrote, â€Å"it was better to be a housemaid or kitchen girl, rather than a baited, trampled, desolate, distracted governess† (Damrosch 1524). And Anna Jameson wrote, â€Å"a woman who knows anything in the world would, if the choice be left to her, be anything in the world rather than be a governess† (Renton 59). Why the Negativity Regarding a Governess? As the cries of these governesses allude, life as a governess was not always glamorous, despite the literary regard. â€Å"A governess who was capable of teaching more than the usual subjects was generally little valued† (Renton 50). The pay a governess received often reflected the small value. â€Å"Her wages could be as low as eight pounds a year†¦ Charlotte Brontà « received twenty pounds per year (actually only sixteen since washing expenses were deducted at the source)† (Allingham). Perhaps the Quarterly Review best put the institution of being a governess in perspective when the following was published, â€Å"a being who is our equal in birth, manners, and education, but our inferior in worldly wealth† (Renton 96). Thus, governesses â€Å"ranked with the superior servants† (Altick 56) and ended up feeling broken and lonely as Jameson described (Renton 59). So Where Did Becky Fit In? Becky was obviously not the typical Victorian governess.

Utility Analysis

During the first three decades of the 20th century, there were many great leaders in the area of Industrial and Organizational Psychology whose contributions have been largely documented in historical records. Leaders are not born they are made, and true leader leads by example. Sometimes people influence the way we live our lives. This could be a pastor, teacher, friend or manager. In any event, leaders must take the extra step and reach out to others.In order to be effective, a leader must be able to initiate and develop his or her alliances in the quest for achieving common goals and objectives (Bills, 1925). Thus, leaders have the ability to influence, guide, direct and control the behavior of others while leading with dignity and respect. Dr. Bills’ studies, exemplified characteristics of true leadership. She became a legendary figure in a scientific research to understand and resolve personnel issues within organizations (Koppes, 2007). In one case study, Dr. Marion A.Bi lls illustrated important duties for managerial position and how essential they are to the success of the organization. MARGINAL UTILITY ANALYSIS AND HRM VALUE Marginal utility is an economic concept that is used in determining the additional satisfaction that one obtains as he consumes additional amount of a particular commodity (Samuelson and Nordhaus, 2001). As applied to the management of human resources, it may be equivalent to the additional product that an employee can contribute to the attainment of organizational goals and objectives.The additional product that an employee can contribute to the company or the additional value that it could provide will be the basis of determining the compensation or the pay that must be given to him. The concept of marginal utility may then be used by a human resource manager in wage and salary administration particularly in determining the salary for a new worker. The management must determine what the new employee is capable of contributi ng to the value of the company by analyzing his qualifications as to knowledge, skills, and abilities.The salary that would be given must at least be equal to the marginal product to ensure that hiring the employee would add value to the firm. If the salary that would be paid is higher than his marginal product (may be equivalent to marginal utility), hiring him would not do good for the company or would not add to its value. REFERENCE: Samuelson, Paul A. and Nordhaus, William D. (2001). Economics. McGraw- Hill Companies, Inc.

Build a Bear, Build a Memory

Universidad Latinoamericana de Ciencia y Tecnologia San Jose, Costa Rica Facultad de Ciencias Empresariales January, 2010 Bilingual Business Administration Principles of Marketing Cesar Eduardo Gonzalez Company Case Build-A-Bear, Build-A-Memory Examples of needs, wants, and demands that Build-A-Bear customers demonstrate, differentiating each of these concepts. What are the implications of each on Build-A-Bear actions. Needs: Understanding needs as states of felt deprivation, not created by marketers but basic parts of the human makeup, we can say that Build-A-Bear customers demonstrate the individual need of self-expression, authenticity, creativity, empowerment, choice, individuality, freedom. They also demonstrate the underlying need that people have to entertain themselves. Wants: Although Build-A-Bear clients need to find a way to self-express and entertain themselves, they want to â€Å"step into a (†¦ genuine fantasy world organized around a child-friendly assembly line comprised of clearly labeled work stations†, where they can choose unstuffed animals from a bin, stuff them, include voice boxes, stitch them, dress them, name them, and even receive a birth certificate for their creation. This example is aligned with the idea that wants are the form human needs take as shaped by culture and individual personality. Demands: Giving their wants and resources, Build-A-Bear customers demand specific products that add up to the most valuable and satisfaction. Among the most relevant examples we can mention are both new store locations and accessories. â€Å"Mini-scooters, Hello Kitty bears, mascot bears at professional sport venues, and sequined purses† are also specific ideas that were interpreted as customers? demands by the company. Implication of each (needs, wants, and demands) on Build-A- Bear actions Needs, wants and demands have huge implications on Build-A-Bear actions. Not only by walking where customers walk, periodically checking its stores and assessing its customer service, but also by employing a mix of low-tech and high tech communication methods to interact with customers, Build-A-Bear demonstrates it is a truly customer-centric organization. This allows the company to fulfill their customers? needs, wants, and demands through successful market offerings, orchestrating several products and services to create brand experiences for customers. In detail, describe all facets of Build-A-Bear? product. What is being exchanged in a Build-A-Bear transaction? In my opinion, Build-A-Bear? s product has two different facets. There is a main facet formed by the intangible â€Å"experience of participating in the creation of personalized entertainment† and there is also a second facet formed by a tangible bear that â€Å"children clutch as they leave the store†. The main facet begins when children step into a â€Å"cartoon land† and interact with the different stations of the â€Å"child-friendly assembly line†. The second one, in turn, has the distinctive sign of being unlike any they other object Build-A-Bear customers have ever bought or receive, â€Å"they have a product that they have created†. Identifying these two facets helps us determine what is being exchanged in a Build-A-Bear transaction. Base on the idea that an exchange is the act of obtaining a desired object from someone by offering something in return, we can say that Build-A-Bear presents both an experience and a tangible object to fulfill its customers? needs, wants, and demands. In return, the company receives an average of 25$ per built bear. However, it goes beyond simply attracting new customers and creating transactions. It truly builds and maintains desirable exchange relationships with its target audiences, retaining customers while growing their business. Which of the five marketing management concept best describes Build-A-Bear workshops? In my opinion, The Marketing Concept is the one that best describes Build-A-Bear workshops. By looking for innovative ways to interact with customers and using both low-tech and high-tech methods, Build-A-Bear? s demonstrate that knowing its customers? eeds, wants and demands and then delivering the desired satisfaction are key activities within the organization. As stated before, Build-A-Bear is a truly customer-centric organization. Discuss in detail the value that Build-A-Bear creates for its customers. Because customer-perceived value is the customer? s evaluation of the differences between all the benefits and all the costs of a marketing offer relative to those competing off ers, we will use the marketing offer of Vermont Teddy Bear Company to discuss the value that Build-A-Bear creates for its customers. On the one hand, Vermont Teddy Bear Company promotes its product as the only hand-made bear in America that is guaranteed for life. Thus, it is safe to assume that high quality is an important element of their market offer. On the other hand, Build-A-Bear value for customers comes not only from the tangible object, the bear, but also from â€Å"the experience of participating in the creation of personalized entertainment†, which led us to the following conclusion: Although bears are final outcomes for both companies, Build-A-Bear is giving more at a lower price. And that is why an average of 25$ for a customized product and for the experience of participating in the creation of personalized entertainment is perceived as a marketing offer that gives more value to the customer compared with to the 50$ to 100$ that customers of Vermont Teddy Bear Company have to pay for a high quality bear. Is Build-A-Bear likely to be successful in continuing to build customers relationships? Why or why not? In my opinion, Build-A-Bear is indeed likely to be successful in continuing to build customers relationships. Why? Because behind the actions the company? is taking to: (i) further expand the Build-A-Bear experience beyond the retail stores using its new website, and (ii) entering into new markets by opening at least 350 stores in the US, 120 stores in Europe, and 300 stores in other parts of the world, are two underlying efforts: build a personal connection with customers, and at the same time understand is clients needs, wants, and demands. Universidad L atinoamericana de Ciencia y Tecnologia San Jose, Costa Rica Facultad de Ciencias Empresariales January, 2010 Bilingual Business Administration Principles of Marketing Cesar Eduardo Gonzalez My needs, wants and demands. As the title suggests, the purpose of this paper is to set forth my needs, wants, and demands. Because a common conceptual framework is very useful in every analysis, the first thing I? m going to do is refer to a brief definition of those terms. I will then explain what my needs are, dividing them into three categories: Physical needs, individual needs, and social needs just to make it easy for my readers. Right after, I will take a look at my wants. And I will finish with my demands. Common conceptual framework: Throughout this paper, I will understand needs as â€Å"states of felt depravation† and stick to the idea that they are not â€Å"created by marketers† but â€Å"a basic part of the human make up†. Wants, in turn, will be treated as â€Å"the form human needs take as they are shaped by culture and individual personality†. They will also be described in terms of objects that will satisfy them, focusing only on those objects I can`t afford. I will do this to distinguish my wants from my demands. This means that I will understand demands as those wants that are actually backed by my purchasing power. My needs: Let? s start with the physical ones. Definitively, food and water are on the top of the list. As every human being, I need food to provide my body with the energy it will use each day. I need also to provide it with water to hydrate it properly. But there is a key point here. I? m just referring to limited portions of food and water or let`s say those that are essential for the human body to work. Thus, a 5. 000-calories-per-day diet seems either as a want or as a demand for average people but not as a need. Maybe not behind but next to food and water I would put air and sunlight. Definitively, those two are also among the essential physical needs every human has; and because I? m not the exception, I thought it was important to include them in my list of needs. I understand, though, that in the world not everyone is satisfying this need at a 100%-rate. Good examples of that can be found just by thinking of really air-polluted cities, such as Mexico DF, or thinking of those countries that receive little or no sunlight during several month every, such as Russia or Canada. But let`s thank we are not in any of those groups and move forward. After food, water, air, and sunlight, I would put cloth and shelter. As I mentioned before, I am just talking about basic stuff. Some examples could be a couple of pants, shirts, and sweaters to protect me from the weather and to cover the cloth section. A small house or flat, in turn, will be sufficient to cover the need of shelter. Thus, design cloth and luxury properties would be definitively in people? s wants or demand section, depending on his or her purchasing power. To finish with my physical-needs section, I would mention not only rest but movement and exercise. As every human being, I need to safe hours every day to sleep and rest. I understand the number of hours needed vary from one person to another, but in my case, 7 to 8 hours work perfectly well. Movement and exercise are important needs too. And although it seems that there are a lot of people out there that are not really aware of that, for me, 4 to 6 hours of exercise per week also work for me. Looking now at my individual needs, I would say that freedom and independence along with creativity and self expression are among the top of this list. As most human beings, I need to feel I can express my ideas and take my own decisions without having someone else telling me what to do or how. Here, I am not talking about homework or other duties at work; I am talking about more deep things, such as having someone telling you what to buy, sell, study, or work, where to live, with whom, or how. Sadly, if we look at political extremists, such as communist, not only in history but around us, we could find good examples of that. I consider that having the possibility of learning new things is also an important need, and as such, I included in my list. Here I am not talking about schools or universities, because, in my opinion, those would be wants or needs depending on everyone`s purchasing power. I am talking about learning in general terms. Last but not least, I would include having fun in my individual-need list. I think this is important in people`s life, and for me is not the exception either. I understand of course that for some people more than for others, this could be tough. But even under the worst circumstances people should try. Now, I will proceed with my social needs. In this category I would include affection, sense of belonging and friendship. For me and for every person I know all of them are very important needs that must be somehow satisfied. I would add to this point that satisfying them is not a matter of quantity of friends or people sharing your thoughts and ideas but a matter of quality and how strong are the bounds that you can create with others. Right after I would add respect. For me, this element plays a key role; and just as others, I need to be treated with respect. Acceptance, communication and understanding are also social need. My wants As everybody else, I have different wants. What interested me the most about them is that, apparently, they have no limits; or at least, that seems to be the consensus among most of the economist, especially when they give a look at the principles of the economic problem. Starting with food, and thinking about it not only in terms of tangible products but also in terms of services that would satisfy my wants, I would say that (at least for weekdays) a varied, healthy, home-style menu of food delivered right to my office would be great would probably satisfy my wants. For weekends in turn, I would say that Gourmet restaurants would also be on the list. In terms of cloth and shelter, my wants are also relatively big and considered as a group, they are also unaffordable, at least at this point. I can start by mentioning some tailored suits, long-sleeve shirts and a couple of pair of Italian shoes that match them would also be included. I would also add several ties, made of silk could be included to finish with the formal outfit. Then, for a more casual look, I would by tens of Hollyster & Co. hirts. The reason why I want them is because they have a special fabric that makes it VERY easy to iron them, which safe me a lot of time. Some expensive, and durable black, beige, blue, and brown cotton pants, and jeans could be also on the list. This way I would leave Zara? s cloth behind, which is nice made to last just for a few months. Moving to the sport section, I would include special tennis for runners and several sport outfits. At this point Addidas or new balance will be on the top of the list. Why? Again, is a matter of the perceived quality of fabrics, those brands (and of course others) have invested huge amounts of money to create high-tech cloth that regulate your internal temperature while you are performing any physical activity. Taking about shelter-related wants, I would put a 3 bedroom flat with a nice view, pool, and a tennis court. I can be here in Costa Rica or anywhere else, for example, at Vancouver, Toronto, London, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, etc. At the end it will depend on where job opportunities are. But now, a flat with this description will fit perfectly well with my wants because I would have a room for me and my girlfriend, a room to use as a private office/library, and finally a guest room for family living overseas. Talking about the possibility of learning new things, I want to start a master program in a European university, especially if it is located in the UK or in the Netherlands. Why? Because I really like those countries and their universities are ranked among the top of the list. I would also add many books to my wants list, and here I? talking about really expensive ones. And finally looking forward to satisfy my both social needs of communication and individual needs of creativity, I would definitively add a Mac book air to my list of wants. The reason I choose this product is because it will give me not only the built-in camera and microphone that I use to call them through the internet (because today almost every computer include this feature) but because it wi ll give me the mobility and flexibility I need due to its light weight. Carrying my laptop at the airports won’t be a nightmare. And finally I will be more efficient at one of my hobbies, which is creating graphic material using Macromedia `s programs, because I will not have to wait for my slow PC. My demands: Sticking here to the idea that demands are the type of needs backed to my purchasing power, I have to admit that my list of demands has been self-limited almost to the basics. This means I have voluntarily decreased my level of consumption because I am a point where the act savings became a necessary step to achieve some of the goals I have set. For example, I would definitively include access to sport facilities to train between 3 to 4 times per week (or even more in those weird cases that I have the time and the will) to my list of demands. A gym membership, for example, could work perfectly well. Products and services that give me more useful time and increase my efficiency are also on my demand list. Here I`m talking about a Smartphone and the Voice & Data packages that are offered by the phone company, which gives me exactly what I? looking for: High-speed internet access, interconnected email accounts, access to overseas radio stations, maps, calendar, address book, alarms, cameras, videos, the etc. Even though it is absolutely not among my favorite demands, gas is also on this list. I understand that public transport represent an alternative. But sadly it is slow and time-consuming, so to my regret public transportation services do not work for me. I also demand ingredients to prepare easy-to-cook, home-style food. Let`s say, fruits, frozen vegetables, chicken breasts, meat, milk, cereal, bread, cheese, juice, etc. Thinking about my individual need of learning new things, I demand related products and services that help me to satisfy it. Among the products, books usually play a central role. When it comes about services, in turn, high-speed internet access and being enrolled in university studies are crucial for me. To finish with my demand list, I would include my apartment, which is rented, and all the related public services. Water, light, land phone, is what I? m talking about here.

Free Essays on Contemporary Issues Of Criminal Justice

Chapter 6 The 19th century is characterized as a period of police corruption. What contributed to this corruption? The main reason that contributed to police corruption in the 19th century was its accessibility. Corruption was so easily found that anyone could become apart of it. The possibilities of corruption were endless. If an officer wanted anything from extra money to job security is could be found and exploited. The police forces were filled with high rank members that were appointed by the main political parties at the time. Officers would follow orders given to them by the political leaders that appointed them to maintain their job security, but they saw this as they were just helping each other. Police also worked either in small groups or alone. As long as they could keep quiet, or keep their co-workers silent there would be no way that anyone could find out about their illegal activities. With everyone being silent it also appeared that everybody would benefit. Because of the availability of corruption, it became a large part of the police business. Others involved with police that were not involved with the corruption were slowly pushed out of any positions of importance. Without legitimate workers at the top to stop illegal activity corruption could continue without anyone to stand in its way. All of these factors show how corruption began in policing in the 19th century. The easy availability of corruption and the close working quarters of police made illegal activity become a regular part of police work. Chapter 7 Explain social isolation and solidarity with respect to the work of police. Cite examples. Solidarity is a common part of any workforce, you work with the same people regularly and deal with the same things they do. There is an automatic bond no matter what job you are involved in. However, people see authority and reject it because they see it as having more power than themselves. This sho... Free Essays on Contemporary Issues Of Criminal Justice Free Essays on Contemporary Issues Of Criminal Justice Chapter 6 The 19th century is characterized as a period of police corruption. What contributed to this corruption? The main reason that contributed to police corruption in the 19th century was its accessibility. Corruption was so easily found that anyone could become apart of it. The possibilities of corruption were endless. If an officer wanted anything from extra money to job security is could be found and exploited. The police forces were filled with high rank members that were appointed by the main political parties at the time. Officers would follow orders given to them by the political leaders that appointed them to maintain their job security, but they saw this as they were just helping each other. Police also worked either in small groups or alone. As long as they could keep quiet, or keep their co-workers silent there would be no way that anyone could find out about their illegal activities. With everyone being silent it also appeared that everybody would benefit. Because of the availability of corruption, it became a large part of the police business. Others involved with police that were not involved with the corruption were slowly pushed out of any positions of importance. Without legitimate workers at the top to stop illegal activity corruption could continue without anyone to stand in its way. All of these factors show how corruption began in policing in the 19th century. The easy availability of corruption and the close working quarters of police made illegal activity become a regular part of police work. Chapter 7 Explain social isolation and solidarity with respect to the work of police. Cite examples. Solidarity is a common part of any workforce, you work with the same people regularly and deal with the same things they do. There is an automatic bond no matter what job you are involved in. However, people see authority and reject it because they see it as having more power than themselves. This sho...

Environmental reporting guideline

Environmental reporting guideline Introduction An environmental reporting guideline is an episodic publication of environmental reporting involving organizational activities as well as the status of their environmental effects and the environmental contemplation. The guidelines are prepared for organizations preparing for their first environmental reporting publication as well as organizations which have already published one.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Environmental reporting guideline specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The guidelines also provide organizations with more enhanced and practical assistance for successfully managing the environment. The guidelines spell out the acceptable directions and contents of environmental reporting based on the acceptable local and international style of environmental reporting (Whatling et al, 2009: 18). It should be noted that environmental reporting is an instrument for an organization to accomplish their obligation to be answerable concerning their environmental effects and environmental features of their activities. The environmental reporting guideline should clarify the organizations commitment towards cleaner and safer environment for all in the society and should have clear and elaborate policies on the organization’s environment initiatives. As much as we try, it’s practically impossible to come up with standardized environmental reporting guidelines to all businesses and applicable in all countries as discussed below (EPA, 2000: 26). Intended audience of environmental reporting guidelines Reporting guidelines are formulated for different audience. In most cases, it’s expected that the big and major companies in a country with more financial and human resources will confront the challenges that come with environmental reporting, and in future all organizations will follow suit. A case study of Japan, fundamental plan for establishing sound cycle society,(m arch 2003, cabinet decision). One of its target goals was that 50% of the listed companies and about 30% of unlisted companies with more than 500 employees would conduct environmental reporting. In this it can be noted that although the guidelines are formulated for all companies, the major ones are the immediate target and are expected to publish high quality environmental reporting which includes the items and information described here in. the small and medium enterprises (SMEs) can be allowed to implement the guidelines in phases and in time adopt the guideline fully. The existence of differences in the targeted audience by the regulating body leads to differences in environmental reporting (Allen, 1999: 63).Advertising Looking for essay on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Reporting areas Different organizations have different reporting areas. Economic, social and environmental issues are in terrelated and therefore some organizations will include environmental issues into socio-economic system while others will not. In western countries and also in Japan, organizations are reporting at a wider scope ranging from environmental perspective to social and economic fields. Organizations are reporting this under titles such as ‘sustainability reporting’, ‘social and environmental reporting’ or ‘CSR reporting’. The social areas refers to examples such as, occupational health and safety, contributions to the local community, corporate governance, personal information etc. the economic area refers to examples such as net sales and profits, assets ,amount of investment, wages, labour productivity , employment creation, and so on. It’s essential to examine a variety of reliable research to be able to evaluate what and how to each elements in those areas should be treated in the reporting. Social aspect has developed from the organizat ions social responsibility. Its also important to pay attention to the international organization standardization (ISO) as it influences environmental reporting as it has its own guidelines on the matter and an organization which is ISO certified has to abide to the regulations. Intended stakeholders of environmental reporting Stakeholders are the consumers of environmental reporting. They are of different types, clients, consumers, the general public, shareholders, financial institutions, employees and so on. Different organizations will prepare their environmental reports based on their stakeholders. The organization will try to prepare their environmental report which will enable their stakeholders to get efficient and effective explanations about their environmental initiatives (Pillai and Ricke, 2002: 35). Organizations will try to come up with environmental policies that will help in coming up with an environmental report that will help their stakeholders be more active in pro moting environmental conservation. Its important to examine the target stakeholders of environmental reporting as environmental reporting is intended for internal stakeholders like management, directors and employees. A general audience or a specific audience will affect the guidelines for environmental reporting (McMillen, 2001: 83). Media used for disclosure Communication with the stakeholders brings a difference in environmental reporting. Different organizations will have different guidelines in regard to communicating with its stake holders. Environmental reporting information should be widely relayed to as many as possible stakeholders using a variety of media such as internet or mass media. The internet enables an organization to provide up to date information and readily accessible to its stakeholders. To allow communication with the local community, the organization should publish regional editions of environmental reporting that has information relevant to the local commun ity that surrounds the organizations operations site.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Environmental reporting guideline specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The organization should be mo vocal on the environmental issues that affect the locals such as input of water resources, air pollution, emissions of chemical substances and other information relevant to the locals (EPA, 2000: 56). Conclusion Environmental reporting guidelines should be of great concern to every organization. Although there are certain laid down procedures and guidelines, every organization should have its own procedures and principles on environmental conservation and reporting. We should in general take it as our responsibility to conserve and preserve environment for better living of the world in general. Reference List Allen, W 1999, How to Successfully Manage a Compost Facility, Biocycle, pp 30-32. Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, Addendum to Environmental Guidelines: Use and Disposal of Biosolids, no. 4454 Sydney: New South Wales Environment Protection Authority. McMillen, P 2001, Separation, collection, and monitoring system, New York: McGraw-Hill. Pillai, D and Ricke, C 2002, Bioaerosols from municipal and animal wastes: background and contemporary issues, Canadian Journal of Microbiology, vol. 48, pp. 682-95. Whatling, R, Brown, A, Hedges, P and Fermor, P 2009, Supply chain Corporate Responsibility Reporting: An assessment of the extent of industry reporting on biodiversity, BiocycleAdvertising Looking for essay on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More

BLUE EYES TECHNOLOGY

BLUE EYES TECHNOLOGY Blue eye technology is a technology which is being developed so that the machines get sensational abilities and perceptual abilities just like our human beings. These abilities make the computational machines to understand the feelings of humans and this helps to interact with them. The main aim of this technology is to analyse human brain and understand their physiological conditions. Imagine a world where humans can communicate with their computers. This concept was first developed by a research team in IBM at Almaden Research Center (ARC) in San Jose, California since 1997.This based on the idea of Paul Ekan’s facial expression. The etymology of the term blue eyes goes as blue stands for Bluetooth technology which is wireless and the term eyes are used because it is the only part that helps us in finding the human expressions easily. The main aim of this technology is to provide computers all those human abilities of understanding the feelings of others by just recognizing their facial expressions, and the tone in which they speak so that these machines would interact with human beings very easily. It could understand your feelings even with the touch of the mouse. For example, if you are really tensed and you want to call your friend; this technology automatically understands the urgency and calls your friend who is working in your office or someone who is very close to you. In short its objective is to provide sessional and perceptual powers to machines to interact with humans and help the in all situations. Hence computer could act as intimate partners to humans. This technology works with the combination of both software and hardware components. Central system unit and the data acquisition unit act as the hardware component. Microcontroller acts as the heart for this technology. Bluetooth technology is used for connecting both hardware and those software units. We could use this type of technology in all working places to understand the emotions humans and to record them. It generally consists of the following units data acquisition unit Central system unit The software unit It is otherwise called as mobile measuring unit. The main objective is to get the physiological information from the sensors and transfer it to central system unit. This is done for processing purposes and for verification too. A Bluetooth is integrated with the DAU is used to send the data to the central system. Both CSU and DAU contains their own pin codes and id numbers for authentication purposes. The components that are used are five-key keyboard, beeper and LCD for displaying purposes. The voice is transferred by using a headset. The next component being used is the CSU. It contains a codec and a Bluetooth module. codec refers to those voices transmitted information. This part is connected to our computers by using a USB cable or a parallel cable. The microcontroller which is present in it handles the UART transmission. The physiological condition of the operators will be continually supervised by this blue eye technology software. The operators real time physiological condition will be respond by the software. It helps to transfer the data from manager to analyzer. The data visualization module supports the user for interface section. It will continually fetch the information from database and record audio, video and physiological parameters of the user if the visualization module is offline. The blue eyes software is mainly enables to know about the physiological condition of the operator. To design a computational machine having sensory and perceptual abilities like human beings, we are using ‘blue eyes technology. This technology uses most modern cameras, microphones and advanced non-obtrusive sensing techniques to interact with humans to understand the emotions of human beings. The process of making sensing and emotional capabilities by computer is called Affective computing. Steps involved for designing this type of computers: Process of giving sensing capacity. Human Emotion detection or Affect Detection. Respond appropriately and properly. Brain computer interface is to develop an adaptable computer system. These types include speech recognition, eye tracking, facial recognition, gesture recognition etc. Blue Eyes technology enables the machines to identify the minor emotional variations of human being by a single touch on keyboard or a mouse. According to the emotion level the machine started react with the user. It is a substitute for usually available machine vision face or eye recognition methods. The glass senses and identifies the expressions by analyzing the facial expressions method. The Simple User Interest Tracker: The SUITOR is having the ability to maintain an intimate relationship between the human and the computer by using the revolutionary approaches towards the machine. It continuously analyze where eyes is focus on the screen. Artificial Intelligent Speech: The working environment should be very important for implementing the Artificial Intelligent Speech Recognition system in Blue Eyes technology. Some important factors that influence the features of speech recognition system they are user’s speech, grammar, noise type, noise level and position of the microphone. This THE BLUE EYES technology assures appropriate techniques. It simplifies the life in a more elegant and user friendly way in computer device. Blue Eyes will reach as your handheld mobile devices in future generations.

The United States of America's strategic policies towards the Caspian Dissertation

The United States of America's strategic policies towards the Caspian Sea and The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline - Dissertation Example Azerbaijani oil resources and the war in Chechnya - a groundbreaking event that demonstrated Russia’s military capabilities to US officials - were the two factors, which prompted Washington to initiate assertive policies from the second half of 1996 onward. The United States has announced that it considers the Caucasus and the Caspian a region vital to US interests (William Ascher, 2000). This study will focus mainly on two questions. Firstly, are U.S. policies in the region serving to divide instead of acting as an integrating or unifying force? Secondly, do U.S. policies in the region prioritize economic-energy security or political-military security? When one tries to respond to the first question, the second question automatically comes to the fore because the changing economic and political security understanding of Washington after 11 September made it evident that the United States today, unlike in the 1970s, is not concerned about its hegemonic decline anymore; on the contrary, it is affecting the global order. Most importantly, it no longer feels threatened by its dependence on imported oil (Mustafa Ayd?n, 2004). Then, under these circumstances, one can argue that it is to the advantage of the United States to focus primarily on economic security which, for liberals, means creating factor mobility among national economies or a joint gains view of economic relations in Buzan’s terms (Mustafa Ayd?n, 2004). In order to respond to the above-mentioned questions this article aims mainly to focus on changing U.S. energy policies in the region after the 11 September disaster in terms of its relations with the Russian Federation and the Islamic Republic of Iran. The positive attitude of the United States toward the construction of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) pipeline will be taken as a case study to assess whether Washington’s policies are serving to divide or acting to unify the countries in the region. In addition, Turkey’s incre asing geo-political importance in terms of the construction of the Baku-Ceyhan pipeline is also a concern of this study (Michael P. Croissant, 1999). American Oil Diplomacy in Terms of Increasing U.S. Interest in the Caspian Basin The United States, who had become accustomed to expanding energy consumption with minimal concerns about the constancy of supply or sharp price escalation by 1972,3 never articulated or implemented a long-term and comprehensive energy strategy. Major energy initiatives were taken largely to address specific crises and they did not last. In other words, the Americans have done no way to deal with their ever-growing thirst for energy. The critics of the U.S. government claim that Washington has made energy goals secondary to other foreign policy objectives, particularly during the 1990s (Bahman, 2003). American sanctions policy, for example, has slowed the development of plentiful resources in Iran (and Libya), while Iraqi production has been held back by th e United Nations. The sanction policy, thus, meant less diversification of sources. The answer to the question ‘Why then does the Bush administration still continue the sanction policy on Iran?’ is that the Bush administration views diversification of sources as a means of assuring the United States of political-military security rather than energy security, while it

Explain the theme of Work and Identity in Kafkas The Metamorphosis Essay

Explain the theme of Work and Identity in Kafkas The Metamorphosis. How is Kafkas work existentialist - Essay Example Gregor is forced to work hard; â€Å"slavery† can be the best term to describe Gregor’s state in the family. He is forced to make cash for the family members. Gregor is viewed as a source of income to the family but not as a member of it. The family has shown that without money, received from Gregor’s hard work, they have no business in associating with him. The neglect is witnessed after the metamorphosis process. Gregor had to undergo revulsion and neglect from the family members as a result of the metamorphosis process. In addition, the effects of money can be seen to be present in the family immediately they begin working. Work and money has made it difficult for family members to communicate, and to eat together (Kafka par 1). On debt, Gregor longs for the day; he will be able to pay all his debts and quit the job. As long as the debts are owed, Gregor cannot stop working because the family depends on the salary received from the job. Debt and work; denied Gregor the freedom from restrictive demands of the society. During the metamorphosis process, Gregor escapes from the debts and duties which have long troubled him. However, the metamorphosis, which is seen as escapism, does not fully help Gregor in achieving full freedom. The family members have decided to imprison Gregor in his room (Kafka par 4). On existentialism and work, an individual’s destiny depends upon that individual and their ability to make choices. Kafka explains the metamorphosis process in relating the way in which Gregor must work to provide for the family. Family duty had to be done by Gregor. Gregor needed money to provide for the basic need to his parents as well as send the sister to a school. Work and family duty has to be done, despite the challenges being experience. However, the efforts put in place by Gregor in providing for the family is not appreciated. The family sees him as a source of income, slave, and a bother (Kafka par 6). After the

Grant proposal+SOP Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Grant proposal+SOP - Coursework Example 1. Title of Project Incidence of the lateral flagella Flag-2 genes in clinical isolates of E. coli. Supervisor(s) surname(s) Forename(s) Title(s) Current post(s) and Employer End date of current funding or normal retirement date Dr J. N. Fletcher J. N. Doctor 3. Proposed Student (where applicable) Forename(s) Title(s) Current post(s and Employer End date of current funding or normal retirement date Fatima Alshannag Fatima PhD student 4. Organisation (administering award if approved) Yorkshire Cancer Research Department accommodating project (and Organisation if other than above) City or Town Bradford Applicant’s Tel. No. and Email address 5. Number of hours per week individuals named in (2) above will devote personally to this studentship. 6. Proposed starting date for period of funding Proposed duration 7. Abstract of Research (10 lines of text in Times New Roman 11-point single spacing). Do not increase size of text box. 8. Full official postal address of applicant Telephone number Fax number Email address 9.1 Does this application follow on from a previously funded YCR award? Please give details. No, this application does not follow previously funded YCR award. 9.2 Is this a resubmission in any part of an application to YCR? No, there are no resubmissions in any part of an application to YCR. ... d summarise the support provided (including its tenure) 10.2 Are you currently applying elsewhere for support for work relating to the present proposal? No, I am not currently applying elsewhere for support for work relating to the present. If so, to which Organisation? 10.3 Is this application or any part of it, currently being submitted elsewhere? No, any part of this application is not being submitted elsewhere. If so, to which Organisation; and by what date is a decision expected? 10.4 Has this application, or any part of it, been submitted elsewhere over the past year? No, this application has not been submitted elsewhere over the past year. If so, to which Organisation? 11. Acceptance of regulations and conditions I/We have read the conditions set out in the Award Conditions and, if my/our application is successful, I/we agree to abide by them. I/We shall be actively engaged in, and in day-to-day control of, the project. I I/We have read the specific Award Information, Award Co nditions and Policies for Awards regarding disclosure of research data, intellectual property and commercial development activity and if my/our application is successful I/we agree to abide by them. Signature of applicant(s) Date: This application should be submitted by/through (i) the Head of Department and (ii) the officer who will be responsible for administering any award that may be awarded (e.g. Finance Officer, Bursar, Registrar, Secretary). Each should sign the following declaration: I confirm that I have read this application and that, if granted, the work will be accommodated and administered in the Department/ Organisation in accordance with the Award Conditions. The staff gradings and salaries quoted are correct and in accordance with the normal practice of this Organisation.

Merchant of venice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Merchant of venice - Essay Example Thus, it can be argued that Shakespeare was not being anti-Semitic when he placed a Jew as a usurer in his play, rather that he was using historical fact as a basis for writing his play. To have written anything else would have been entirely out of historical context. Shakespeare, the greatest dramatist of all time, was not concerned with the issue of anti-Semitism, rather he used the fact that Shylock was a Jew as a tool, through which he was able to explore the issues he wished to discuss in this play – the play, read in this way, is not itself anti-Semitic, rather, it is a play about anti-Semitism, about the similarities and differences one encounters when dealing with people of different religions. Throughout all of Shakespeare’s writing, he uses characters as tools with which to build his story, and entertain his viewers/readers - The Merchant of Venice is no exception to this rule, and so according to this reading of Shakespeare’s motives, this interpretation of the play can be argued to be valid. Shakespeare’s creation of a character as multi-faceted as Shylock is a testament to his skills as a writer – at times we sympathize with Shylock, at times we simply cannot understand his methods or motives; this is because Shakespeare wanted to create a ‘larger than life’ villainous character, who would entertain us through his actions. He is an eternally fascinating character, he keeps us, the viewer/reader, captivated. The fact that Shylock is a Jew is incidental to the drama; Shakespeare wanted to design a character through which he could develop the action of his play, and it is testament to Shakespeare’s skills as a dramatist that he created such a memorable character, that leaves the reader asking so many questions. At times we dislike Shylock, at times we sympathize with the things he is going through; at all times, he arrests us with his depth and his evident selfishness; he is captivating as a

Rationalism vs. Empiricism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Rationalism vs. Empiricism - Essay Example . Contrary to empiricists, rationalists embrace deduction. This means being able to prove something by relying on certainty and not reason. For instance, Descartes relied on deductive reasoning as a way of proving God’s existence. Conversely, empiricism denotes a belief in the sense perception as the source of knowledge. For example, John Locke explained this belief by dividing sense perception into two parts that include simple and complex ideas. The simple ideas emerge from only on perception. This may include for example, perception of color or size. On the other hand, complex ideas are derived by combining the simple ideas (Alexander 58). Further, another belief that separates empiricism from rationalism involves the acquisition of ideas through experience. In essence, ideas according to empiricists, are not acquired through an innate process. Empiricism does not embrace innate ideas in the sense that, knowledge varies. For instance, a child’s mind is a tabula rasa, but learns from experience. In essence, if they possess the knowledge, they should use it from the start. According to Lock, simple ideas emanate from experience, and those ideas are combined to form complex ideas. In addition, empiricism contrary to rationalism endorse a belief in induction. This is the belief that only a few phenomenon are proven conclusively. For example, people identify things through their sense perception. However, most perceptions cannot be concluded to agree with the objects being perceived (Alexander 65).

Did the central character experience an epiphany in this story Essay

Did the central character experience an epiphany in this story - Essay Example Through this protagonist, O’Connor poses a deep reflection about the misunderstanding people may have about their values but also warns about the danger of stereotyping others based on their social status or race. O’Connor’s â€Å"Revelation† contains great moral lessons that address the perception people have about their own values. Through Mrs. Turpin, the author exposes the conflict that exists between the assumptions they have about the expression of their Christian values in contrast to the reality. Indeed, Mrs. Turpin’s deep conviction about these moral values she embodies makes her walk confidently into the waiting room and challenge the integrity of the others. The narrator informs: â€Å"The doctor’s waiting room, which was very small, was almost full when the Turpins entered and Mrs. Turpin who was large, made it look even smaller by her presence. She stood looming at the head of the magazine table set in the center† (O’Connor 341). This physical domination reflects the woman’s state of mind as she tries to overpower everybody by displaying her character and her values. Her efforts to make a good impression on people and then c onvey her good manners and social standing make her always draw attention on her. Moreover, Mrs. Turpin’s judgmental attitude towards the others informs about her personality and the disdain she feels for them. The physical, behavioral and even social judgment she operates on those around her expresses her intolerance and lack of compassion. She severely scrutinizes those around her and measures their values and worth according to her own standards of success or behavior. The narrator informs: â€Å"The girl’s face was blue with acne and Mrs. Turpin thought how pitiful it was to have a face like that at that age. She gave the girl friendly smile but the girl only scowled the harder† (O’Connor 343). This cruel thought about a teenager and this hypocritical

Rationalism vs. Empiricism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Rationalism vs. Empiricism - Essay Example . Contrary to empiricists, rationalists embrace deduction. This means being able to prove something by relying on certainty and not reason. For instance, Descartes relied on deductive reasoning as a way of proving God’s existence. Conversely, empiricism denotes a belief in the sense perception as the source of knowledge. For example, John Locke explained this belief by dividing sense perception into two parts that include simple and complex ideas. The simple ideas emerge from only on perception. This may include for example, perception of color or size. On the other hand, complex ideas are derived by combining the simple ideas (Alexander 58). Further, another belief that separates empiricism from rationalism involves the acquisition of ideas through experience. In essence, ideas according to empiricists, are not acquired through an innate process. Empiricism does not embrace innate ideas in the sense that, knowledge varies. For instance, a child’s mind is a tabula rasa, but learns from experience. In essence, if they possess the knowledge, they should use it from the start. According to Lock, simple ideas emanate from experience, and those ideas are combined to form complex ideas. In addition, empiricism contrary to rationalism endorse a belief in induction. This is the belief that only a few phenomenon are proven conclusively. For example, people identify things through their sense perception. However, most perceptions cannot be concluded to agree with the objects being perceived (Alexander 65).

College Life Essay Example for Free

College Life Essay Wow! The first week of college was a breeze. All my professors seemed so nice. Class never lasted longer than thirty minutes. I did not have to carry any books to class for that whole week. Finding classes was some what tough, even though my classes are around the same area. I did not have any homework to do. I did not see my friends as much but we hung out as much as we could. I went to a different party each night of the week and still attended all of my classes. I do not need a bed time. I know how to get up, but now things have changed. College life is going to be a difficult transition for me. Having to move away from my family is going to take some time to get used to. Waking myself up everyday will be a chore in itself. Now I will have a roommate to be considerate of. I will decide if I should attend a party or go to a club without someones approval. I can go to the club with out my mom having the final verdict. I will hang out with my friends anytime I want to. I will have to learn how to manage my own money and time. At the end of the day college is all of what I make it. May it be hard for some and easy for others it is up to me to decide how I will adjust to college life; will I go to class; study for my test; waste my money; like my roommate? The distance between Greensboro, North Carolina and Washington, DC is greater than what I thought. I thought the number of miles apart would be a good thing but once again time has proven me wrong. I find myself calling home and cherishing every conversation I have with my family more and more. I send them emails when they do not answer the phone. Sometimes call to check on my younger brothers and sisters which I could not stand when I was at home. I miss my mom the most. She is the person who I thought that I would miss the least. Being home sickness has really set in. Also I miss driving my car anywhere I want to go. I miss just sitting on my front porch talking to my neighbors and their children. I miss going to work and making my own money to spend on whatever I want to. I miss going to the high school football game to see my brother play and my sister cheer. I really miss a home cooked meal and enjoying it with my family on a Sunday night after church. I miss getting my hair done every two to three weeks. It is hard to wake myself up everyday. It is hard to get up everyday to go to class because I go to sleep so late at night from talking to my friends or doing homework. It is also, hard because I do not get enough sleep at night. I have an eight oclock a. m. class that I struggle to get up for almost everyday of the week. Also I struggle to stay up for my six oclock p. m. classes. I knew it was going to get hard but I did not think it would get hard this fast. I have to do my homework in between classes so I will have enough time to go to sleep each night. Getting to know my roommate, Ebony, is the second hardest thing to do. It is hard because she is so different from me. She is from Elizabeth City, North Carolina and I am from Washington, DC. She listens to different music, wears different clothes, and acts different from me because she is from a different geographical region from me. During the first week at school we did not talk much. She does not to appreciate our dorm room because it is smaller than her room at home. She always slept and if she was not sleep then she was hanging out with her friends. She did not talk to anyone from our suites. Now, she is not afraid talk to us. She has friends over now and introduces them to us. She went to a club with us for the first time and that has been the only club that she has been to since she has been here. Before I came to college I thought I would always go to parties or the club. That thought has proven to be just a thought, not reality. I can party all the time if I want to but that would be wasting all of my parents money. I have to think about my classes before I go to a club. I know that the best days for me to go to the club are on Wednesday and Friday nights, because I do not have class on Thursday mornings or on Saturdays. So I just do not go to the clubs with my friends all of the time. I learned quick how to say no to going out. Eventually I will not have any money if I keep going to the clubs or parties. I enjoy hanging out with my friends, but I know that is not always possible. They always try to get me to do things when I need to study. They get upset at me when I tell them no. I guess that is because they have not adjusted to the fact that we will not always be able to hang out. I still try to eat lunch and dinner with them almost everyday. It is not possible to hang out with my friends anymore because of the difference in our class schedules. We also do not hang out anymore because of the activities that we all take part in. Sometimes my friends go home on the weekend so we do not get to hang out on the weekends either. Managing my own money and time is a hard task. Usually my mom tells me what to buy and what not to. Now that she is not here who will help me? It is up to me to make the right choice. Do I buy the Jordan sneakers that come out on the seventeenth or do I save that money for a better investment? Since that choice is up to me I will probably buy the Jordan sneakers. My mom would want me to save the money and spend it on something that I really need; like school books and food. It is not her responsibility to manage my money anymore. Time management is equally important. I will have to know how to spend the appropriate amount of time per day studying for my classes. I must not procrastinate on my assignments. I find it that I am always waiting until the last minute to do the work for my classes, because I work best under pressure. In summary the transition from high school to college has been an interesting one. I will learn more in-depth into all subjects that I learned in high school especially business. Making the decision to buy the Jordans sneakers will always be a decision that I look back on in the future. Going to the club on Thursday and waking up for my eight oclock a. m. class is going to be a big choice to make. It will be hard to know how much time I need to study for test or quizzes in any of my classes. I am still learning how to interact with my roommate. In order to make her fell comfortable around me and my friends. I have managed to wake myself up for class ever since I started to attend North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University.

Quantitative models for project planning

Quantitative models for project planning Introduction Project management consists of diverse processes linked to each other. In IT project management, strategic vision and planning are important elements of any project which determine the project outcomes. Historically, project success has been defined as bringing a project to conclusion on time, within budget and according to specifications. For successful performance, IT organizations need effective project management system which consists of control activities and effective resource allocation in order to achieve overall objectives of the company/organization. Project Management Defined Project management aims to achieve specified performance within an agreed time scale and budget. Every aspect of the project is defined, e.g. quality, reliability etc. In general, project management is defined as the process of managing, allocating, and timing resources to achieve a given goal in an efficient and expedient manner (Badiru,1993, p.1). The goals of the project give a sense of direction for the activities of an organization. They give broad guiding principles towards which detailed and specific plans are directed. The important point of the project management is that the elements are expected to work synergistically together to generate a joined output that is greater than the sum of the individual outputs of the components (Badiru, 1993, p.1). Different authors identify different elements of the project management such as planning, scheduling and control or resource scheduling, budgeting and cost control, teamwork and effective leadership, conflict management and knowledge management. The book A Guide to the Project Management underlines that the main characteristics of projects are: performed by people, constrained by limited resources and planned, executed and controlled (Burkun, 2005. p. 4). All of them underline importance of successful planning and control operations to achieve specific goals of the project. Effective projects are based on unlimited model of project management. It describes the impact of resource scheduling, budgeting, teamwork, conflict management and knowledge management on the outcomes of the project. Projects are carried out in organizations, which are collectives of individuals and sometimes in a group, sometimes at cross-purposes. Resource Scheduling In IT project management, resource scheduling in the initial planning stage varies depending on the type of project. When planning a simple project its team may simply consider the type of resources necessary for each activity, equipment or skill groups. However, if planning a project with fewer resources, the project team may consider not just the skill types necessary but particular individuals, especially if the project has a short duration. The effective resource planning is essential, because the initial stage determine the development and outcomes of a project in general. On some projects, collocation may not be an option; where it is not viable, an alternative may be scheduling frequent face-to- face meetings to encourage interaction (A Guide to the Project Management, 2000). The people who created the PERT scheduling technique realized that any estimate of the duration of a proposed task is subject to uncertainty (Frame, 2002, p. 74). Unproductive long-range planning for purchasing does not allow the project to achieve its goals. It can lead to waste of time and poor outcomes. It is important that the project be finished on time and close to budget. By adding resources it can easily be seen whether any project resources are expected to be working on a huge number of activities, to such an extent that they will not be able to complete all the work by the scheduled completion date. Ineffective resource scheduling can lead to low profits and useless unprofitable outcomes (A Guide to the Project Management, 2000). Budgeting and Cost Control On the majority of IT projects where there is very limited equipment being used, the main cost will be that associated with the people in the internal project team, appointed contractors and subcontractors. It is important to note that for different organizations, cost of the staff plays a different role. For instance, organizations running in-house projects do not estimate the cost of their internal staff working on the project, but do esti ­mate the cost of contractors and suppliers. Knack finds that The more hours staff members spend on a project, the more expensive it becomes (Frame, 2002, p. 20). This is often the case not only for small organiza ­tions, but also many multinational companies which do not have systems in place to allow them to accurately track and record the time people spend on individual projects. For these organizations, effective cost management is crucial for the project outcomes and its profitability. Cost budgeting involves allocating the overall cost estimates to individual activities or work packages to establish a cost baseline (A Guide to the Project Management, 2000, p. 89). Human Resource Management Management of conflicts is an essential part of project Management. It has assumed a vital strategic role in recent years as organizational attempt to compete through people. Today, projects can create a competitive advantage when they possess or develop human resources that are psychologically strong and organized. To avoid low motivation and confidence of employees, conflict is now treated seriously as an important aspect in the proper understanding of behavior. Modern management prac ­tice emphasizes the need for free expression and encourages open com ­munications, especially between superiors and subordinates, and methods of continuing consultation and negotiation (Frame, 2002, p. 98). Conflict resolution takes time and efforts of employees, reducing success of the project in general. Also, conflicts have a negative influence on productivity because of low motivation or frustration of the staff. Knowledge Management Without effective knowledge management the IT project will fail. Proper flow of knowledge and training of employees ensures success and fixed outcomes of the project. Knowledge management is viewed as a means of communication and as a means of storing knowledge. Knowledge manage ­ment is more about people than technology. Organizational networks can be particularly important in ensuring that knowledge is shared. Risk Management A major source of risk on IT projects is tied to difficulties in managing needs and requirements. If requirements have not been identified correctly and if the corresponding requirements do not capture real needs properly, then a project is doom to failure because it will produce deliverables that do not correspond to customers needs and wants. Proper management of needs and requirements is a necessary condition for project success. Problems begin with attempts to identify needs. One common difficulty is determining who the customers are. Managers who aspire to enable their organizations to be good at managing risk must recognize the road to effective risk management. In projects, there are techniques that may help to reduce uncertainty of the future and hence are valuable. In the area of investment decisions, probability forecasts are very important, e.g. variable estimates of future sales costs and prices will affect the estimated rates of return on capital invested in projects. Risk management is an important area of project management because it helps the project manager to locate and plan resources taking into account probability analysis and possible risks. Ineffective risk analysis leads to failure of the project and threatens its outcomes. To understand why these may be threatening to some people, consider what risk management processes do: they force people in organizations to approach their efforts in a deliberative fashion and to be aware of the dangers that lurk in the shadows (Badiru, 1993). In order to survive in highly competitive world, IT organizations have to improve their flexibility and be ready to meet change from external environment. He says that changes in organization are often facilitated by such factors as uncertain economic conditions, globalization and fierce competition, the level of government intervention, political interests, scarcity of natural resources, and rapid developments in technology. As well as increasing demand for high-quality goods, services and customers satisfaction, flexibility in organizational structure determines the changing nature of workforce and conflict within the organization. Therefore, in todays fast changing business environment, change turns to be an unavoidable part of social and organizational life (Blanchard and Johnson, 2002). Hence, organizational change can appear in different shapes, sizes and forms; it can be reflected in various change programs such as total quality management, business process re-engineering, per formance management, lean production are all being enforced in organizations all over the world. Moreover, each organization has to find its own approach on how to implement change, reduce conflict and achieve higher productivity. It is important to have a detailed management plan, create an appropriate organizational environment to deliver change, follow carefully the steps of change models and focus on human resources (Badiru, 1993). Quality Management Quality management can be described as a collection of principles, techniques, processes and best practices. These are put into practice during the time of companys existence. In general, the whole process is based on a number of effective technologies. Traditionally, the technologies are based on the use total quality management elements (Badiru, 1993). The use of these elements is projected to improve the quality management method model that has been developed by the company. The main objective of the given model is to describe the primary quality management methods that are currently practiced by the company. The combination of these methods is used with the aim to assess an organizations present strengths and weaknesses. Traditionally, the analysis is done with the regard to the use of quality management methods. Recent times have brought many approaches to management. Just-in-time (JIT) management principles have become the main principles that are used in modern managerial prac tices. The main specifics of JIT program is that it is directed towards ensuring that the right quantities of the people. Many people perceive this program as a material-control system (Frame, 2002). In IT projects, a great emphasis is put on training people in tools and techniques knowledge. So, knowledge of safety rules for workers would eliminate accidents at work, thus making process more effective and productive. With the help of quality control process chart, a safety officer is able to analyze his actions directed onto training people in safety issues. The cause of any issue can be steaming either from people, or process, or equipment. If equipment is not working properly, the incidents at working station could be also an effect. The scheme is divided into cause and effect parts, where cause can contain such categories as people, methods, machines, materials, environment, measurements, etc. Usually there would be found a relation between causes and effects in the projects Other issues that could be considered as principles of performance, besides profitability, include market share, degree of compliance with rules, rate of innovation and extent of society involvement. In addition to an overall judgment of consumer value, the input process of value creation must also be tracked and changes made as needed. In the issue of value, minor errors could later cause problems and require the type of essential change that a plan of endlessly improving value seeks to avoid. A suitable frame of indicators for the process of leadership is provided by the other issues themselves. The leadership, Integration, Involvement, and Ingraining achieved by the organization are reliable factors of how effectively the organization is pursuing its stated eventual end (Frame, 2002). Conclusion The outcomes of the IT project depend upon all elements of the project and effective implementation of all parts of the plan. In project management, resource scheduling and resource location are the main keys of effective project management based on control of project and its security. All elements are interdependent and cannot be considered in isolation. For instance, better customer relations lead higher morale of staff, lower program costs result in higher profit margins. Individuals have a lot of freedom, but when they join a project their freedom is restricted and their effort must be joined with those of others to achieve organizational goals. For this reason, the project manager should take a special attention to all areas of the project and resources involved to achieve desirable and predetermined outcomes. Effective project management depends upon location of resources and management skills of its leader. IT project management links such categories as people, methods, machin es, materials, environment, and measurements. List of References Badiru, A.B. 1993. Quantitative Models for Project Planning, Scheduling and Control. Quorum Books. Burkun, S. 2005. The Art of Project Management. OReilly Media; 1 ed. Blanchard, K., Johnson, S. 2002. The One Minute Manager. Berkley Trade. A Guide to the Project Management: Body of knowledge PMBOK Guide 2000 edition. Project management Institute. Frame, J.D. 2002. The New Project Management: Tools for an Age of Rapid Change,Complexity, and Other Business Realities. Jossey-Bass.